Monday, January 27, 2020
Influence of Climate Change on Eel Migration
Influence of Climate Change on Eel Migration Introduction Freshwater eel populations are experiencing a worldwide decline, mainly due to overfishing, habitat loss, and barriers to migration (Bonhommeau et al. 2008). However, an increasing body of work suggests that climate change poses a significant threat to eel recruitment, currently, and in the future (Bonhommeau et al. 2008, Knights 2003). This should be an important consideration for eel management in New Zealand, and is partially explored in August and Hicks 2008 paper: Water temperature and upstream migration of glass eels in New Zealand: implications of climate change. The ecological, cultural and economic important of eels New Zealand is home to three main species of anguillid fresh-water eel, the endemic longfin eel (Anguilla dieffenbachii), the shortfin eel (Anguilla australis), and the recently discovered Australian longfin (Anguilla reinhardtii) (Jellyman 2009). Both populations have declined from commercial fishing and habitat degradation, but there is more concern for the longfin eel. Aside from being exclusive to New Zealand, longfins are more slow growing and are more vulnerable to current environmental changes than shortfins because of their habitat preferences. Their geographical distribution and abundance has declined over the past decades, prompting its ranking as an At Risk-Declining species by the New Zealand Threat Classification System (Goodman et al. 2014). The status of New Zealand eels are important to many stakeholders because both species have ecological significance and serve as valuable cultural and economic resources (Jellyman 2007, August and Hicks 2008). Eels play a critical role in freshwater ecosystems as the apex predator. As opportunist scavengers, they also serve to remove dead organisms, helping to recycle nutrients back into the system (Jellyman 2012). Because they can prey upon nearly all other freshwater fish, eels have the ability to control other fish (and eel) populations, and even those of introduced species (Chisnall et al. 2003). As an endemic New Zealand species and the largest freshwater eel found in the world, there is also much justification to protect the longfin eel and preserve the unique biodiversity of the country. Eels are taonga (cultural treasure) to Maori (the indigenous people of New Zealand). Historically eels were an essential food source of Maori, and remain an significant component of Maori culture and beliefs (Jellyman 2007, Wright 2013). Eels are integrated in their whakapapa (genealogy), mythology (eels are seen as spiritual guardians of waterways), and it is important for Maori kaitiakitanga (guardianship) to protect eels so as to restore the mauri (life force) of their rivers (Wright 2013). Both shortfin and longfin eels support commercial, traditional and recreational fisheries. The commercial eel industry is not very large for New Zealand, with eel exports bringing in revenues of $5 million annually (Jellyman 2012). Unfortunately, this commercial fishing industry has still greatly contributed to eel decline locally, prompting demands to reduce or ban commercial fishing of longfins (Wright 2013).    Eel decline: a vulnerable life history Part of the reason eels are so vulnerable is their extraordinary semelparous life history. Mature eels migrate to oceanic spawning grounds (the exact location still unknown, but suspected to be northeast of New Caledonia) where they spawn and die (Jellyman 2009). The larvae migrate back to New Zealand, and metamorphosise into glass, or unpigmented, eels. They arrive at the coast, with peak arrivals in September and October, and migrate upstream through rivers and streams from late winter to early summer. After spending many years, sometimes decades in freshwater, mature eels will then migrate back to their oceanic spawning grounds, continuing the reproductive cycle (Jellyman 2009). Unfortunately, this life history means that (1) eel recruitment is highly dependent on their successful upstream and downstream migration, (2) they take a relatively long time to reach reproductive age, (3) they only breed once per lifetime, and (4) they have limited habitat. All these factors have made it even easier for humans to disturb eel populations. Increased sedimentation in wetlands, lakes and rivers has further diminished available habitat, especially for longfins who prefer clean, clear waters (Wright 2013). The construction of hydroelectric dams largely inhibits eel movement upstream and downstream (Jellyman, 2007).  Much of the management efforts concerning eels involves facilitating the upstream and downstream migration of eels and other native fishes using ladders, the temporary shutting down of hydroelectric dams, physically transporting glass eels over dams, etc (Jellyman 2007).     While there are many localized threats to eel populations, it is also imperative to consider long term, overarching threats to eels populations. A study by August and Hicks aimed to better understand the environmental factors influencing eel migration, and the findings of their study suggest that we may need to underline climate change on the growing list of eel threats (2008).  Purpose and methods of the experiment In their study, August and Hicks investigated the upstream migration of glass eels in the Tukituki River, in Hawke Bay, New Zealand (2008). The purpose of their experiment was to see how environmental variables affected the number of migrants, and to survey the species composition, size, condition and pigmentation of the migrants (2008). They conducted this survey in the rivers lower tidal reaches by trapping glass eels most nights from September to late November in 2001, and until early December in 2002. Eels were trapped using a mesh net, with mesh screens on either sides to prevent eels from moving past the net. Fishing began an hour before sunset, and every 45 minutes, glass eels and bycatch were removed from the net, counted and recorded. A subsample of glass eels was removed from the catch each night so the level of pigmentation and species could be identified in the lab later. Fishing ended each night when the glass eel catch decreased over three successive trapping periods. August and Hicks also measured water temperature at the sampling site and river mouth, river flow 10km upstream from the sampling site, wind, barometric pressure, and solar radiation. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze associations between the number and length (daily means of total length for each species) of migrants and the environmental variables, separated by species and year. Study results and discussion In total, the researchers caught 50,287 eels in 2001 and 19,954 in 2002, and they do not discuss reasons for this difference in eel numbers. Out of the environmental variables measured, they found that river water temperature, sea water temperature and river flow were most associated with glass eel catch, though river and sea water temperatures were highly correlated. Maximum eel numbers were found when river flow was low or normal (less than or equal to 22 m3 s-1), with fewer numbers at higher flows.   Migrating glass eels seemed to prefer moderate river temperatures; water temperatures below 12 °C and above 22 °C seemed to almost or completely suppress eel migration. August and Hicks created a habitat suitability curve and proposed 16.5 °C as the optimum temperature for upstream migration of New Zealand glass eels (2008). This relationship between may exist because water temperature can facilitate (or hinder) the swimming ability of fish, both by affecting the metabolism of the fish and the kinetic viscosity of water. Moon phase, which has been historically associated with glass eel invasions, was sometimes associated with peak eel runs into the stream. However, they found that moon phase was confounded by other variables, namely water temperature and tidal currents, and suggest that these factors, rather than the moonlight itself, may be the mechanism driving eel invasions during full and new moons. This observation, while limited to the Tukituki River, may help to clarify the lunar association with eel migrations globally. In both years, their catch was mainly shortfins (91% in 2001 and 93% in 2002), which is consistent with observations that shortfins dominate the North Island east coast. However, this finding could be valuable for eel management since shortfin dominance may be reflect the pastoral development of the area and result from their superior tolerance to increasingly muddy waters.   They acknowledge some shortcomings of the study, including the fact that glass eel recruitment likely began before trapping. They did not estimate trap efficiency, though visual observations suggested that no more than 5% of the migrating glass eels escaped entrapment. Significance of their findings While glass eel recruitment may be associated with various environmental factors, water temperature was the most strongly linked factor out of the measured variables. This study thus supports the theory that water temperature is a cue for the start and intensity of the New Zealand upstream eel migration. This has been observed for Anguilla rostrata  (American eels ) (Marin 1995), Anguilla anguilla  (European eels) (Edeline et al. 2006), and even experimentally for Anguilla japonica (Japanese eels) (Chen and Chen 1991), but had not been thoroughly explored in New Zealand eels. Nevertheless, this study contributes further documentation of temperature thresholds for eel migrations, and puts forth an optimal temperature for New Zealand migrations. In finding linkages between water temperature and lunar phases, their work may also help to clarify the supposed relationship between the moon and eel invasions globally. Their finding of peak migrations during spring tides is consistent with previous studies (Jellyman 1979), and demonstrates how eels use flood tides to achieve passive upstream movement. Findings from Jellyman et al.s 2009 study in the Waikato River system contradicted the results of August and Hicks study. While Jellyman et al. also found that temperature had a significant relationship with the migration strength, their largest migrations occurred at much cooler temperatures, between 12.6 and 13.1 °C. These temperatures are well below August and Hicks optimum temperature of 16.5 °C , and undermined their hypothesis that temperatures below 12 °C would suppress migrations.  These variations in the eel responses to temperature could result from the Waikato study site being further inland than August and Hicks study. Aside from using different river systems with potentially very different ranges of temperatures, this meant that the eels sampled by Jellyman et al. were older and may respond to environmental factors differently. Implications for climate change Given the predictions that climate change will lead to rising ocean temperatures, August and Hicks speculate that warming temperatures will negatively impact glass eel recruitment. However, in the article, they do not discuss or predict in detail how rising water temperatures will impact eel migration, such as effects on the timing or numbers of migrants. They maintain that the generality of the negative effects of high water temperatures on glass eel invasionsremains to be confirmed (August and Hicks 2008), which is a reasonable statement given the limited scope of their study. However, the usefulness of this article could have been strengthened by analyzing, in more detail, the potential threat climate change poses to eels. This paper also lacked a discussion of whether eels could adapt to the projected increases in ocean temperatures. These ocean temperature rises are expected to be relatively gradual, with warming in New Zealand between 0.7-5.1 °C, with a best estimate of 2.1 °C, by 2090 (Ministry of the Environment, 2008). The Jellyman et al. 2009 study may actually provide evidence that eels are already adapting to warming ocean temperatures. When they compared migration catch data between a 30 year interval, they found that the main migration period occurred several weeks earlier. This suggests that eels may be compensating for increasing temperatures by migrating earlier in the season (Jellyman et al. 2009). By shifting their migration times, or even by other adaptations in their physiology, eels may avoid the detrimental effects of climate change. However, there is also the danger that as temperatures warm, the window of temperatures suitable for migration will grow smaller and smaller, which could still lead to declines in recruitment. Moreover, it is already clear that eel recruitment has decreased both in New Zealand and globally, so it is unlikely that adaptation will allow eels to completely escape the effects of climate change.                  Climate change may also be more strongly affecting eel recruitment through food availability, rather than through temperature increases. One review of continental water conditions and the decline of American, European and Japanese eels found correlations between eel recruitment and sea surface temperature anomalies (Knights 2003). They hypothesized that global warming trends will negatively impact eel recruitment by inhibiting spring thermocline mixing and nutrient circulation (Knights 2003). Changes in the resulting food availability may be a significant contributor to the worldwide eel decline. Despite several studies investigating the impact of large scale oceanic warming trends, we still very much lack an understanding of how much climate change will, and is currently, playing a role in eel populations.     Implications for Eel Management This study was beneficial by informing the population composition of eels (specifically species and size) in the Hawke Bay region. Knowing the size of migrations in 2001 and 2002 can allow ecologists to measure the health of eel populations in the future by using this data as a point for comparison. This population information also gives resource managers some sense of what to expect from mature eel populations in the future. Understanding how environmental variables affect eel recruitment can help eel managers predict migrations with greater precision and to understand why they are witnessing certain trends in eel populations. By helping managers make predictions for when peak glass eel migrations will occur, this study can help inform ideal times to turn off hydroelectric dams or invest more efforts into eel transfers over upstream obstacles. Even though this study makes an important step towards considering how ocean warming will affect eel recruitment, its ability to advance our understanding of eels and climate change is extremely limited. Further experimental studies are needed to investigate the temperature preferences of eels and the effects of temperature. Even then, studies researching the effects of warming temperatures on eels are inherently limited because they cannot consider species responses and adaptations on a timescale relevant to climate change. Regardless, given our worldwide eel decline, and evidence that climate change may already be impacting eel populations, its clear that more research is needed to investigate the current and future threat of climate change for eels. Conclusion The August and Hicks study advanced our understanding of the abiotic factors controlling glass eel migrations in New Zealand. They found a strong association between migrations and water temperature, which raised concerns that rising ocean temperatures will negatively impact eel recruitment. While their predictions about the effects of climate change are largely limited by the scope and nature of the study, their findings demonstrate the need for further research on climate change and eels. Such research is especially imperative given the context of local and global declines in eel recruitment and populations.       Word Count: 2,434 Works Cited August, S. M., & Hicks, B. J. (2008). Water temperature and upstream migration of glass eels in New Zealand: implications of climate change. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 81(2), 195-205. Bonhommeau, S., Chassot, E., Planque, B., Rivot, E., Knap, A. H., & Le Pape, O. (2008). Impact           of climate on eel populations of the Northern Hemisphere. Marine Ecology Progress            Series, 373, 71-80. Chen YL, Chen H-Y (1991) Temperature selections of Anguilla japonica (L.) elvers, and their    implications for migration. Austr J Mar Freshwater Res 42:743–750 Chisnall, B.L.; Hicks, B.J.; Martin, M.L. ( 2003). Effect of harvest on size, abundance, and            production of freshwater eels Anguilla australis and A. dieffenbachii in a New Zealand            stream. P. 177–189. In: Biology, management, and protection of catadromous eels.            Dixon, D.A. (Ed.). American Fisheries Society, Symposium 33. Edeline, E., Lambert, P., Rigaud, C., & Elie, P. (2006). Effects of body condition and water        temperature on Anguilla anguilla glass eel migratory behavior. Journal of Experimental                       Marine Biology and Ecology, 331(2), 217-225. Goodman, J. M., Dunn, N. R., Ravenscroft, P. J., Allibone, R. M., Boubee, J. A., David, B. O.,           & Rolfe, J. R. (2014). Conservation status of New Zealand freshwater fish, 2013. New         Zealand Threat Classification Series, 7, 12. Jellyman, D. J. (1979). Upstream migration of glass-eels (Anguilla spp.) in the Waikato River.    New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 13, 13–22. Jellyman, D. J. (2007). Status of New Zealand fresh-water eel stocks and management     initiatives. ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil, 64(7), 1379-1386. Jellyman, D. J. (2009). Modelling Larval Migration Routes and Spawning Areas of        Anguillid Eels of New Zealand and Australia in Challenges for Diadromous Fishes in a      Dynamic Global Environment (1-934874-08-6, 978-1-934874-08-0), (p. 255).            Bethesda: Amer Fisheries Soc. Jellyman, D. J., Booker, D. J., & Watene, E. (2009). Recruitment of Anguilla spp. glass eels in   the Waikato River, New Zealand. Evidence of declining migrations?. Journal of Fish   Biology, 74(9), 2014-2033. Jellyman, D. J. (2012). The status of longfin eels in New Zealand – An overview            of stocks and harvest. Report prepared for Parliamentary Commissioner for the            Environment. NIWA. Knights, B. (2003). A review of the possible impacts of long-term oceanic and climate changes   and fishing mortality on recruitment of anguillid eels of the Northern   Hemisphere. Science of the total Environment, 310(1), 237-244. Martin, M. H. (1995). The effects of temperature, river flow, and tidal cycles on the onset of                   glass eel and elver migration into fresh water in the American eel. Journal of Fish         Biology, 46(5), 891-902. Ministry for the Environment (2008). Climate Change Effects and Impacts Assessment. A            Guidance Manual for Local Government in New Zealand. 2nd Edition. Prepared by  Mullan, B; Wratt, D; Dean, S; Hollis, M. (NIWA); Allan, S; Williams, T. (MWH NZ        Ltd), and Kenny, G. (Earthwise Consulting Ltd), in consultation with Ministry for the Environment. NIWA Client Report WLG2007/62, February 2008, 156p. Wright, J. (2013). On a pathway to extinction? An investigation into the status and management of the longfin eel. Wellington, New Zealand: Parliamentary Commissioner for the          Environment. Â
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Baklava Process Paper
Abigail Andrews Dr. John R. Willey ENC1101 MW 10:30 13 November 2012 The Process of Baking Baklava Have you ever been at a Greek restaurant and eaten one of those deliciously flaky Baklava desserts? Do you wish you were able to make it at home for yourself or to bring to a potluck? I know that Baklava seems as if it should be an extremely difficult dish to prepare, but believe it or not it is surprisingly simple and easy. After reading this you should be confident and capable of preparing, baking, and serving the most delicate and savory dessert that will ever come from your oven.To begin, make sure you have all of the necessary ingredients: one pound of pecans, one teaspoon of cinnamon, a food processor, one 16oz thawed package of Phyllo dough, one can of aerosol butter spray, wet paper towels, a sharp knife, a 9Ãâ€"13 casserole dish, a medium size saucepan, one cup of water, one cup of white sugar, half a cup of honey, a teaspoon of vanilla, and a package of cupcake liners. Second ary, clean off the counters in the kitchen so there will be a sanitary and clutter free area to work on.Preheat the oven to 350* with the oven rack placed in the middle. Once you have prepared your kitchen you can get started on the recipe. First pour a pound of whole pecans and a teaspoon of cinnamon into the food processor and grind them to a fine chop. If you do not own a food processor you can purchase finely chopped pecans and hand mix the cinnamon into them; however, I do recommend the food processor method because you can chop the pecans to a nearly dust-like consistency. Set the cinnamon pecan blend aside while you start to prepare your dough.Keep in mind that this dough is the most delicate part of the recipe, but if handled quickly and carefully there should be no problems. After completely thawing a 16oz package of Phyllo dough, in the fridge overnight, open and unroll one of the two packages. If it does begin to dry out and break easily don’t fret; simply cover it with a slightly wet paper towel. Only work with one roll at a time; the thin layers of dough can dry out very quickly. Place two sheets of dough into a buttered 9Ãâ€"13 pan that is at least two inches tall.Completely cover the second sheet with spray butter. I have previously used melted butter and applied it with a brush, but the aerosol can works best; it is quicker and doesn’t tear the thin layers. Repeat that process until eight sheets are layered and buttered. On top of that eighth sheet of buttered dough evenly sprinkle three tablespoons of the cinnamon pecan blend. Gently place two more sheets down and butter them completely. Repeat the process of sprinkling the pecans and layering two sheets of buttered dough until there are only six sheets remaining.Prepare the last six pieces of dough in the same fashion as the bottom layers; two sheets than butter, two sheets than butter and so on until you have used all of the dough and the top layer has butter on it. Buttered f ingertips on your non-dominant hand may help keep the top layer of dough in place for this part. Using a very sharp knife carefully slice three times so there are four long rows. Some people make their baklava into squares but I prefer smaller triangles because it is such a sweet treat that one almost feels guilty devouring a large piece. To make triangles cut diagonally across the pan.Take great care to insure every piece is completely separated all the way down to the bottom most layer of dough. After all of the cuts have been made place the dish onto the middle rack of an oven that has been preheated to 350*. It should bake for about 50 minutes or until the top layer has a beautiful golden brown color. The sauce will need to be prepared while the baklava is baking, so it will be ready when you take the dish out of the oven. In a medium saucepan bring one cup of water and one cup of white sugar to a boil while stirring occasionally.Once the sugar has completely dissolved pour in h alf a cup of honey and a teaspoon of vanilla extract. Gently stir the mixture while it simmers for 20 minutes. Immediately after removing the golden baklava from the oven drizzle one tablespoon of sauce on each piece, cover all the dry spots with the remaining sauce. Allow the dessert to cool completely before transferring the flaky triangles into individual cupcake liners. Put a few pieces into Ziploc bags and freeze for a tasty treat another day or arrange them on a serving platter to share with friends.Be sure to leave them uncovered or they may become soggy overnight. You are now equipped with the knowledge to prepare a dish that will have people singing praise to your baking skills. As you can see this recipe is surprisingly easy to make with an amazing end product. Every time you make this dessert it will become easier and easier; which is good because once you share it with others they will be asking you to make it again and again. Remember, honey and pecans are healthy so fe el free to have another piece!
Friday, January 10, 2020
Pollution affects the health of all living thing. Essay
Many peoples, animals and plants depend on water for survival of life but because of water pollution all living things must suffer or die from the effects caused by water pollution. Man is busy inventing new things every day and the consequences of these inventions affect the land, air and stream and causes water pollution. Some of the causes of water pollution are industries trying to fulfill the need of consumers by inventing new products and creating jobs for people. Another cause of water pollution is the chemicals that people use on their lawns and gardens. Water pollution can also be caused by land movement, avalanche and erosion from the weather. Animal also causes water pollution but they are unaware that they are actually causing pollution to the stream, rivers and lakes. The effects of water pollution in our stream, lakes and ocean have a huge impact on the living creatures that uses the water for their habitat. When the beaches and lake are polluted, tourists do not spend time to visit there, animals also die from consuming garbage. Another effect of water pollution is the cause of an oil spill in the ocean which has a huge impact on the living creatures and wild life that uses the polluted water. It is important for individual living in this planet to prevent water pollution. The planet is very precious for all it living thing. People have to use the planet resources carefully, and prevent water pollution to it streams, lakes and rivers. We all share this plant it earth, air, land and water. When one of these characters of the planet is affected it also affects another. One can use water People can purchase items that they need and not want. They can reuse and recycle items that are useable. One can use organic material in their gardens and lawns. Farmers can reduce the use of chemical in their crops. One can walk, bike or use transit to get around. Individual should not put sediments, nutrients, toxic chemicals, pathogens in water. These are some of the thing people can do to prevent water pollution.
Thursday, January 2, 2020
A Race for Rats in The Winter of Our Discontent - 837 Words
A Race for Ratsnbsp;in The Winter of Our Discontentnbsp; Some runners look only to the finish line, choosing to ignore what they step on or who they pass along the way. In The Winter of Our Discontent, Steinbeck portrays the dawning of a selfish American society concerned solely with winning personal races. Set in a small New England town during the early sixties, the story focuses on the life of Ethan Allen Hawley, an intelligent man with prestigious family history who is employed as a grocer to the dismay of members of his family and the community. At the beginning of the novel, Ethan had not yet adopted the new religion of America, to look after number one (26,291) in order to gain money and social standing. However, as the†¦show more content†¦Competing against each other in an I Love America essay contest leads to Ellen’s revealing Allen’s plagiarism after he wins. Allen in turn hits his sister (353). Allen’s lack of family values is again evident when he refuses to work in the grocery store during the su mmer (217). Looking after number one (26, 290) turns the Hawleys into a dysfunctional family not willing to support or to sacrifice for one another. Throughout the novel, characters race not only past their families but also past their friends. Margie Young-Hunt, †¦a predator, a huntress... (21) picks Ethan as her project (222), although he is married to Mary, her friend. Ethan, too, chooses to put friendship aside in order to achieve his selfish goals. Ethan goes so far as to turn his own boss into the immigration office in order to won the grocery store. Perhaps the most manipulative action Ethan takes is against his childhood friend, Danny Taylor. Ethan offers Danny, in exchange for Danny’s land as collateral, $1000 to go to a rehabilitation center, even though Ethan knows Danny will use the money for alcohol (153). 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